DNA: SCIENTIFIC Theory to Investigative Tool
Brief history
In 1944, it was theorized by Oswald Avery that deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) was responsible for the transfer of heritable traits. Nine years later
in 1953, doctors James Watson and Francis Crick constructed a large
model detailing their postulated structure of DNA. The man-sized model
explained the unique properties of DNA that enabled it to reproduce
itself perfectly from generation to generation. Their model was the first
rendition of the double helix.
Extensive studies of DNA during the 1980's revealed polymorphic
(variable) regions between people at the genetic level. The effort to
locate variable regions was fueled by the search for disease markers.
While performing disease research, Alec Jeffreys realized DNA's potential
as a tool for human identification and in 1984 coined the phrase "DNA
fingerprint".
The first forensic case solved using DNA profiling occurred in England
during the mid 1980's. An additional factor contributing to the uniqueness
of this case is that the entire male population of four villages in the
English Midlands was required to submit blood for DNA testing, thereby
establishing the first DNA database for comparison to criminal evidence.
Over 4,000 men between the ages of 13 and 34 were tested. The
implementation of this dragnet method of testing resulted in an innocent
man's exoneration and a guilty man's conviction.
Beginning in 1986, private laboratories like the one used by Wall Street
Detective Services, were the first to analyze DNA samples for forensic
use in the United States. Both federal (FBI) and state forensic
laboratories followed suit. Today, county and metropolitan law
enforcement laboratories also boost capabilities with forensic DNA.
Although government funded laboratories have increased in number in
an attempt to meet law enforcement demands, the volume of backlogged
criminal DNA casework and convicted felon data bank profiling is
overwhelming. Crime labs may take anywhere from several month to a
year to provide DNA results, leaving prosecutors and other law
enforcement officials the option to pursue testing with a private lab.
Private investigative agencies and criminal defense attorneys must rely
upon the handful of private laboratories in existence that are capable of
performing forensic DNA analysis.
Wall Street Detective Services, and our highly recognized laboratory
have the solution to fill this gap for the Law Enforcement community and
the private sector.
What is DNA in a forensic context?
At the molecular level, forensic DNA is "junk DNA." By this, we mean that
it is DNA that has no known coding function for the determination of a
physical trait such as eye or hair color. Forensic DNA is "non-coding,"
highly variable, and statistically consistent in frequency among various
individuals. Thus, by analyzing nine DNA systems, a unique DNA profile
can be determined to the power of one in several billion.
Forensic DNA can be extracted from "trace" evidence and subsequently
analyzed using a process called polymerase chain reaction (PCR). PCR is
the process of "copying" or amplifying very small sections of DNA within
biological evidence in order to obtain the quantity of DNA required for
analysis. PCR enables extremely small samples and very old, degraded
samples to be analyzed. DNA evidence can be extracted from items such
as a licked envelope, Kleenex tissue, toothbrush, cigarette butt, used
syringe, blood splatter or chewing gum, and even dandruff.
DNA analysis has applications ranging from Criminal Prosecution or
Defense, to Corporate Harassment, Food Industry issues and security, to
Private Civil Infidelity Studies. Provide examples of current uses. A
review of several recent cases analyzed by our laboratory will offer
connotative reading, and provide examples of current uses.
Criminal Investigation
Sexual Assault: The perpetrator of these heinous and violent acts is
easily Identified through the use of DNA profiling. The astute investigator
or detective will process the crime scene searching for clothing items,
couch cushions, or bed sheets for stains consisting of blood, semen,
and/or vaginal fluid. The examining physician should collect a sexual
assault kit. If the victim violently resisted the attack, he or she may have
the perpetrator's skin/blood beneath their fingernails. Fingernail
scrapings may offer physical (DNA) evidence, as rape is an act of
violence and seminal fluid is not always present. A sexual assault kit
contains collections swabs that may consist of a mixture of suspect and
victim DNA. The male genetic profile is determined by analyzing the male
fraction (sperm heads).
This technique is now a standard allowing the prosecution with present
genetic evidence that corroborates the sexual assault(s) the victim's
testimony.
Murder: 1990-2000 was the DNA decade. Juries now expect DNA evidence
to be presented during trial when a murder is involved. DNA analysis is a
scientific and therefore unbiased procedure, providing useful evidence
for the prosecution as well as the defense. One third of the initial
suspects in cases are cleared before going to trial as a result of DNA
analysis, thereby saving the taxpayers money, the court's time, and most
significantly-the innocents freedom. Remember, DNA was not used as a
forensic tool in the United States prior to 1986. For this reason, the
courts are allowing cases to be reopened if evidence or technology
unavailable at the time of the original trial (such as DNA), provides
information that will exonerate a wrongly convicted individual. The U.S.
Department of Justice published a research report in 1996 entitled:
Convicted by Juries, Exonerated by Science, which chronicles 28 such
cases. Our laboratory has assisted in adding cases to this ongoing list.
The most recent of which was provided for the Capital Litigation Division
of the Missouri Public Defender system in Kansas City.
This case involved a murder for which the convicted felon serviced
nearly a decade on death row prior to exoneration. The original trial and
subsequent conviction were based upon serology, bloodstain analysis
(not DNA) and corroborating, yet circumstantial evidence. The victim was
the wife of the accused. Exoneration in this horrible case has barely a
silver lining. The victim is dead, an innocent man served a decade on
death row, and the murderer remains a large. DNA, in the forensic
environment, has taken great strides in preventing such injustices.
In the five years that have passed since the publication of this report,
several additional exoneration cases have made headlines. Tragically,
among the original 28 cases chronicled, the convicted innocent endured
a total of 197 years of incarceration.
Automobile accident reconstruction: Accident reconstruction experts
may add one more tool to their array of investigative techniques through
the use of DNA. Our laboratory services uses DNA determine the
occupants' positions within a vehicle (driver or passenger status) at the
time of impact. By analyzing a deployed driver's airbag, the forensic
laboratory can often make such a determination. The force behind a
deploying airbag delivers a "punch: necessary to generate and deposit
DNA samples on the airbag in the form of nasal mucus, saliva, or blood.
The accident investigator merely needs to cut the stained section from
the deployed airbag or seize the entire airbag and retain it as evidence
until DNA analysis may be performed. Defense strategy in automobile
accidents often revolves around the issue of who was operating the
vehicle when the accident occurred. With DNA results to confirm the
identity of the driver, the issue is no longer a point of contention.
Collection and Storage of DNA Evidence
DNA, in a dry state, is very stable. Ultra-violet light, extreme heat and high
humidity are the primary destructive agents of the DNA molecule. There
are a few basic rules that must be followed for the proper collection,
packaging and storage of DNA evidence.
Stains (Wet) - Blood, Semen, Saliva: Biological evidence should always be
allowed to air-dry before packaging/storage. Moisture allows bacterial
growth to occur, rapidly destroying nuclear material and therefore,
greatly diminishing the possibility of obtaining useful DNA results. Blow
dryers and/or other heating devices should not be used to force the item
into a dry state. Wearing non=powdered gloves, lay the item flat on a
clean surface, isolated from a high traffic area, or place in a clean paper
bag and allow drying for several hours.
If the item cannot be packaged, due to size of other constraints, disinfect
a pair of scissors with a 5% bleach solution and cut out as much of the
stained area as possible. In order to avoid contamination issues, gloves
should be changed in between handling or seizing each piece of
evidence and scissors should be disinfected in between cutting each
new stain. Each piece of evidence/stain should be packaged separately.
The cutting should be place in a clean envelope, paper bag or cardboard
box to air-dry. Plastic bags should NOT b used for storing wet evidence,
as they do not allow moisture to evaporate.
Pooled: Liquid Blood, Saliva or Semen:
When dealing with blood, saliva or semen in a polled or liquid state. Swab
as much of the sample as possible onto sterile cotton swabs and allow
the swabs to air dry. Package swabs in clean paper envelopes.
Stains (Dry)-Blood, Semen or Saliva:
For the best possible results, an item that has biological evidence
deposited on it should be submitted in its entirety. Each item should be
placed in a separate, clean paper bag, cardboard box or plastic bag (if
entirely dry). If the item cannot be submitted in its entirety and a cutting
cannot be taken, the following methods of collection maybe used.
Place two or three drops of distilled water or physiological saline (0.85%)
onto a sterile, cotton swab and rub over the stained area, transferring as
much of the stained substance as possible onto the swab. Allow the swab
(s) to air-dry and package in clean paper envelopes.
Dried samples may be scraped with a sterile scalpel of disinfected knife
blade onto a clean square of paper or glassine paper. The scraping
method of collection may result in a significant loss of sample, as the
substance subjected to scraping will flake and disperse as very fine
particulate matter. The paper should be folded on all edges in order to
keep the scrapings from falling out. The folded paper should be placed
inside a clean paper envelope and sealed.
Amniotic Fluid:
Place a minimum of 20 CC's (ml) into a sterile container and freeze. Ship
frozen fluid overnight with cold packs.
Urine (liquid): Place a minimum of 30CC's (ml) into a sterile container and
freeze. Ship frozen fluid overnight with cold packs.
Hair:
Hair(s) must have a root (sheathing) present in order to successfully
employ DNA testing. Microscopic examination of the hair(s) allows a
determination to be made as to the viability of the sample for such
testing. If root material is absent mitochondrial DNA typing is an option,
however it will provide limited genetic information in the mitochondrial
DNA is strictly maternal in inheritance.
Hair that has been forcibly removed (pulled) provides optimal results.
(shed hairs typically have partial root material or no toot material
present). For proper storage and shipping of hairs, place hair(s) into the
crease of a folded piece of clean paper. Fold all open edges of the paper
inward keeping hair within the center section of the paper. Place folded
paper into an envelope and seal the envelope with tape if a self-
adhesive envelope is not available. Do not tape the edges of the folded
paper, as stray hairs protruding from the edges of the folds will stick to
the tape. Do not lick the envelope to seal it, as saliva from the envelope
may contaminate the hair sample(s).
Remember a sample as small as s single hair root may provide enough
biological material to perform successful DNA testing…but only if
collected, stored, and shipped properly. Advanced PCR-DNA technology
is robust and forgiving, allowing generation of accurate profiling results
from degraded samples. Strict adherence to the collection and packaging
instructions stated above will ensure the best possible results from
forensic and genetic testing.
Any questions concerning proper collection, packaging and/or shipping
of biological evidence may be directed to Wall Street Detective Services
by telephone, e-mail, or facsimile.
Brief history
In 1944, it was theorized by Oswald Avery that deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) was responsible for the transfer of heritable traits. Nine years later
in 1953, doctors James Watson and Francis Crick constructed a large
model detailing their postulated structure of DNA. The man-sized model
explained the unique properties of DNA that enabled it to reproduce
itself perfectly from generation to generation. Their model was the first
rendition of the double helix.
Extensive studies of DNA during the 1980's revealed polymorphic
(variable) regions between people at the genetic level. The effort to
locate variable regions was fueled by the search for disease markers.
While performing disease research, Alec Jeffreys realized DNA's potential
as a tool for human identification and in 1984 coined the phrase "DNA
fingerprint".
The first forensic case solved using DNA profiling occurred in England
during the mid 1980's. An additional factor contributing to the uniqueness
of this case is that the entire male population of four villages in the
English Midlands was required to submit blood for DNA testing, thereby
establishing the first DNA database for comparison to criminal evidence.
Over 4,000 men between the ages of 13 and 34 were tested. The
implementation of this dragnet method of testing resulted in an innocent
man's exoneration and a guilty man's conviction.
Beginning in 1986, private laboratories like the one used by Wall Street
Detective Services, were the first to analyze DNA samples for forensic
use in the United States. Both federal (FBI) and state forensic
laboratories followed suit. Today, county and metropolitan law
enforcement laboratories also boost capabilities with forensic DNA.
Although government funded laboratories have increased in number in
an attempt to meet law enforcement demands, the volume of backlogged
criminal DNA casework and convicted felon data bank profiling is
overwhelming. Crime labs may take anywhere from several month to a
year to provide DNA results, leaving prosecutors and other law
enforcement officials the option to pursue testing with a private lab.
Private investigative agencies and criminal defense attorneys must rely
upon the handful of private laboratories in existence that are capable of
performing forensic DNA analysis.
Wall Street Detective Services, and our highly recognized laboratory
have the solution to fill this gap for the Law Enforcement community and
the private sector.
What is DNA in a forensic context?
At the molecular level, forensic DNA is "junk DNA." By this, we mean that
it is DNA that has no known coding function for the determination of a
physical trait such as eye or hair color. Forensic DNA is "non-coding,"
highly variable, and statistically consistent in frequency among various
individuals. Thus, by analyzing nine DNA systems, a unique DNA profile
can be determined to the power of one in several billion.
Forensic DNA can be extracted from "trace" evidence and subsequently
analyzed using a process called polymerase chain reaction (PCR). PCR is
the process of "copying" or amplifying very small sections of DNA within
biological evidence in order to obtain the quantity of DNA required for
analysis. PCR enables extremely small samples and very old, degraded
samples to be analyzed. DNA evidence can be extracted from items such
as a licked envelope, Kleenex tissue, toothbrush, cigarette butt, used
syringe, blood splatter or chewing gum, and even dandruff.
DNA analysis has applications ranging from Criminal Prosecution or
Defense, to Corporate Harassment, Food Industry issues and security, to
Private Civil Infidelity Studies. Provide examples of current uses. A
review of several recent cases analyzed by our laboratory will offer
connotative reading, and provide examples of current uses.
Criminal Investigation
Sexual Assault: The perpetrator of these heinous and violent acts is
easily Identified through the use of DNA profiling. The astute investigator
or detective will process the crime scene searching for clothing items,
couch cushions, or bed sheets for stains consisting of blood, semen,
and/or vaginal fluid. The examining physician should collect a sexual
assault kit. If the victim violently resisted the attack, he or she may have
the perpetrator's skin/blood beneath their fingernails. Fingernail
scrapings may offer physical (DNA) evidence, as rape is an act of
violence and seminal fluid is not always present. A sexual assault kit
contains collections swabs that may consist of a mixture of suspect and
victim DNA. The male genetic profile is determined by analyzing the male
fraction (sperm heads).
This technique is now a standard allowing the prosecution with present
genetic evidence that corroborates the sexual assault(s) the victim's
testimony.
Murder: 1990-2000 was the DNA decade. Juries now expect DNA evidence
to be presented during trial when a murder is involved. DNA analysis is a
scientific and therefore unbiased procedure, providing useful evidence
for the prosecution as well as the defense. One third of the initial
suspects in cases are cleared before going to trial as a result of DNA
analysis, thereby saving the taxpayers money, the court's time, and most
significantly-the innocents freedom. Remember, DNA was not used as a
forensic tool in the United States prior to 1986. For this reason, the
courts are allowing cases to be reopened if evidence or technology
unavailable at the time of the original trial (such as DNA), provides
information that will exonerate a wrongly convicted individual. The U.S.
Department of Justice published a research report in 1996 entitled:
Convicted by Juries, Exonerated by Science, which chronicles 28 such
cases. Our laboratory has assisted in adding cases to this ongoing list.
The most recent of which was provided for the Capital Litigation Division
of the Missouri Public Defender system in Kansas City.
This case involved a murder for which the convicted felon serviced
nearly a decade on death row prior to exoneration. The original trial and
subsequent conviction were based upon serology, bloodstain analysis
(not DNA) and corroborating, yet circumstantial evidence. The victim was
the wife of the accused. Exoneration in this horrible case has barely a
silver lining. The victim is dead, an innocent man served a decade on
death row, and the murderer remains a large. DNA, in the forensic
environment, has taken great strides in preventing such injustices.
In the five years that have passed since the publication of this report,
several additional exoneration cases have made headlines. Tragically,
among the original 28 cases chronicled, the convicted innocent endured
a total of 197 years of incarceration.
Automobile accident reconstruction: Accident reconstruction experts
may add one more tool to their array of investigative techniques through
the use of DNA. Our laboratory services uses DNA determine the
occupants' positions within a vehicle (driver or passenger status) at the
time of impact. By analyzing a deployed driver's airbag, the forensic
laboratory can often make such a determination. The force behind a
deploying airbag delivers a "punch: necessary to generate and deposit
DNA samples on the airbag in the form of nasal mucus, saliva, or blood.
The accident investigator merely needs to cut the stained section from
the deployed airbag or seize the entire airbag and retain it as evidence
until DNA analysis may be performed. Defense strategy in automobile
accidents often revolves around the issue of who was operating the
vehicle when the accident occurred. With DNA results to confirm the
identity of the driver, the issue is no longer a point of contention.
Collection and Storage of DNA Evidence
DNA, in a dry state, is very stable. Ultra-violet light, extreme heat and high
humidity are the primary destructive agents of the DNA molecule. There
are a few basic rules that must be followed for the proper collection,
packaging and storage of DNA evidence.
Stains (Wet) - Blood, Semen, Saliva: Biological evidence should always be
allowed to air-dry before packaging/storage. Moisture allows bacterial
growth to occur, rapidly destroying nuclear material and therefore,
greatly diminishing the possibility of obtaining useful DNA results. Blow
dryers and/or other heating devices should not be used to force the item
into a dry state. Wearing non=powdered gloves, lay the item flat on a
clean surface, isolated from a high traffic area, or place in a clean paper
bag and allow drying for several hours.
If the item cannot be packaged, due to size of other constraints, disinfect
a pair of scissors with a 5% bleach solution and cut out as much of the
stained area as possible. In order to avoid contamination issues, gloves
should be changed in between handling or seizing each piece of
evidence and scissors should be disinfected in between cutting each
new stain. Each piece of evidence/stain should be packaged separately.
The cutting should be place in a clean envelope, paper bag or cardboard
box to air-dry. Plastic bags should NOT b used for storing wet evidence,
as they do not allow moisture to evaporate.
Pooled: Liquid Blood, Saliva or Semen:
When dealing with blood, saliva or semen in a polled or liquid state. Swab
as much of the sample as possible onto sterile cotton swabs and allow
the swabs to air dry. Package swabs in clean paper envelopes.
Stains (Dry)-Blood, Semen or Saliva:
For the best possible results, an item that has biological evidence
deposited on it should be submitted in its entirety. Each item should be
placed in a separate, clean paper bag, cardboard box or plastic bag (if
entirely dry). If the item cannot be submitted in its entirety and a cutting
cannot be taken, the following methods of collection maybe used.
Place two or three drops of distilled water or physiological saline (0.85%)
onto a sterile, cotton swab and rub over the stained area, transferring as
much of the stained substance as possible onto the swab. Allow the swab
(s) to air-dry and package in clean paper envelopes.
Dried samples may be scraped with a sterile scalpel of disinfected knife
blade onto a clean square of paper or glassine paper. The scraping
method of collection may result in a significant loss of sample, as the
substance subjected to scraping will flake and disperse as very fine
particulate matter. The paper should be folded on all edges in order to
keep the scrapings from falling out. The folded paper should be placed
inside a clean paper envelope and sealed.
Amniotic Fluid:
Place a minimum of 20 CC's (ml) into a sterile container and freeze. Ship
frozen fluid overnight with cold packs.
Urine (liquid): Place a minimum of 30CC's (ml) into a sterile container and
freeze. Ship frozen fluid overnight with cold packs.
Hair:
Hair(s) must have a root (sheathing) present in order to successfully
employ DNA testing. Microscopic examination of the hair(s) allows a
determination to be made as to the viability of the sample for such
testing. If root material is absent mitochondrial DNA typing is an option,
however it will provide limited genetic information in the mitochondrial
DNA is strictly maternal in inheritance.
Hair that has been forcibly removed (pulled) provides optimal results.
(shed hairs typically have partial root material or no toot material
present). For proper storage and shipping of hairs, place hair(s) into the
crease of a folded piece of clean paper. Fold all open edges of the paper
inward keeping hair within the center section of the paper. Place folded
paper into an envelope and seal the envelope with tape if a self-
adhesive envelope is not available. Do not tape the edges of the folded
paper, as stray hairs protruding from the edges of the folds will stick to
the tape. Do not lick the envelope to seal it, as saliva from the envelope
may contaminate the hair sample(s).
Remember a sample as small as s single hair root may provide enough
biological material to perform successful DNA testing…but only if
collected, stored, and shipped properly. Advanced PCR-DNA technology
is robust and forgiving, allowing generation of accurate profiling results
from degraded samples. Strict adherence to the collection and packaging
instructions stated above will ensure the best possible results from
forensic and genetic testing.
Any questions concerning proper collection, packaging and/or shipping
of biological evidence may be directed to Wall Street Detective Services
by telephone, e-mail, or facsimile.
| DNA EXPLAINED & HISTORY |
| EQUINE CODIS |
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